Following the eruption an estimated further 49, fatalities occurred throughout Sumbawa, Lombok and surrounding islands through the indirect causes of famine and disease; widespread crop failure and famine was also reported across Europe, North America and Asia Oppenheimer, Fatalities associated with seismicity are recorded, but it is difficult to distinguish between volcanic and tectonic seismicity-related deaths in the literature.
Thus, both indirect and seismicity-related fatalities are excluded from analysis of fatalities and fatal incidents with distance, though are discussed in Fatalities during quiescence and Victim classification.
The fatality database records eruption dates i. This is not always the same as the date of the fatal incident within an eruption. Incident dates aid identification of specific incidents and help to avoid duplication. These dates can commonly be obtained from activity bulletins. Unless eruptive activity is typically located in fissure zones or volcanic fields, evacuations and eruption planning commonly focus on the summit of the volcano, and existing population exposure assessment methods are typically centred on the summit.
Hence, despite recognising that some hazards originate in areas distal to this effusive flank vents for example , here the volcano to fatal incident distance is measured from the summit. Deaths are commonly reported in particular towns or villages, or with relation to the summit or crater.
We determine the approximate distances at which fatalities occurred relative to the volcano summit, through combination of these descriptions with additional literature, including from volcano activity bulletins, online news and academic articles.
Judgement is required to interpret qualitative descriptions, as described below. Fatalities are commonly described on the cone or during climbs to the summit. In these cases the location is assumed to be on the upper cone. A distance range is approximated based on the radius of this upper cone estimated using Google Earth. The victims had climbed to the summit without consultation with the Mt. Marapi Volcano Observatory or local authorities, although a hazard warning had been in effect since The town in which deaths occurred is sometimes recorded.
When the town is named the approximate town centre or Google Earth marker is used to determine the distance. Minimum and maximum distances are also provided for the town limits. Literature about the volcanic activity and online maps and images help to identify town location.
Manam also illustrates the use of island size to constrain the maximum distance within which fatalities occurred. The island is at most 11 km across, with an approximately central volcanic peak. The maximum distance from the centre to the coast on any flank is about 6 km. Other literature can identify the extent of the fatal cause and identify a distance range. For example, deaths are described through pyroclastic flows in the eruption of Colima, Mexico.
Here, the maximum distance can be constrained to within 8 km, from mapping of ash flow deposits by Luhr and Carmichael We consider both fatal incidents an event with fatalities and fatalities number of victims. A single eruption can have multiple fatal incidents and can include fatalities at a range of distances from a range of fatal causes.
Fatalities are recorded as separate incidents when: 1 they are due to different fatal causes; 2 they occurred at different times. Fatalities are recorded as single incidents with sub-incidents when they are due to the same fatal cause at a range of distances. For example, the 57 direct fatalities at St. Helens, USA in can be considered as one incident.
However, we separate these into sub-incidents as we record 26 separate distances where the fatality locations could be identified from the literature e. Eisele et al. To average the distances in such an incident would not be appropriate, therefore individual distances are recorded and can be counted in multiple distance bins in analysis.
The database is prone to errors related to incorrect or unreliable reporting. Multiple information sources and specifics such as incident date or victim details are used wherever possible to improve reliability. Ultimately, judgement is applied about whether a report is reliable enough to include. A quality level index is introduced to evaluate data reliability Table 1. Fatal incidents recorded at specific distances are considered data quality level 1 QL 1 , such as those mapped precisely in the St.
Helens eruption. Where the fatal incident cannot be restricted to an exact distance, a distance range is identified QL 2. The majority of destroyed villages were at approximately 5 to 10 km Taylor, QL 3 data have no distance information available. QL 1 and 2 data are combined in our analysis. The maximum distance recorded in QL 2 incidents is used as this represents a conservative estimation of threat. If the QL 2 midpoint was used then this could underestimate the reach of the hazard.
For example in the case of the eruption of Lamington, a midpoint of 6. Distances of fatal incidents can be used to characterise distribution of threat with distance from a volcano and to understand the hazardous extent of different volcanic phenomena. The former requires measurement from the summit, while the latter requires measurement from the active vent, noting the occurrence of satellite vents.
However, the location of the active vent is not always recorded. Many hazard, exposure and risk assessments consider distance rings around a central volcano e. Ewert and Harpel, ; Aspinall et al. Our analyses use distance measured from the summit, unless stated otherwise. In calderas or volcanic fields lacking a central edifice, measurement is from fatal incident to the volcano coordinates in Google Earth from GVP These measurements therefore have larger uncertainties than for stratovolcanoes.
The database uses the same enumeration method of Auker et al. The updated fatalities database contains records and , fatalities recorded since AD through any fatal cause.
These records comprise incidents, 19 of which are further subdivided into 73 sub-incidents, where fatalities are identified at multiple distances. Sub-incidents are hereafter combined under incidents for analysis. Of the total, 64 incidents and 61, fatalities are due to indirect fatal causes or seismicity: these are excluded and discussed separately in our analysis. The difference in number of incidents and fatalities compared with Auker et al. Fatalities are recorded at volcanoes in 38 countries Fig.
A distance is identified for of the fatal incident records in the database; a major improvement on the 27 of fatal incidents reported in Auker et al. Results are presented here with some contextual discussion; more focussed discussion is provided in Discussion.
Our analysis with distance excludes fatal incidents due to indirect fatal causes or seismicity unless otherwise stated, and combines incidents and sub-incidents. Therefore, we consider incidents with , fatalities. Of these incidents, have a distance recorded. The number of fatal incidents decreases with distance from volcanoes Fig. The largest number of fatal incidents in any 5 km bin around the volcano occurs closest to the volcano, in the first 5 km. Indeed, at 5 km to about 10 km the number of fatalities increases dramatically Fig.
Cumulative proportion of fatalities and fatal incidents with distance. QL 1 and QL 2max data are represented and shown for all fatal causes excluding indirect and seismicity.
Data are binned in 1 km width bins at the maximum distance e. The number of fatalities with distance is more variable Fig. Single incidents can account for large losses of life at different distances, resulting in markedly stepped appearance to the cumulative curves in Fig.
Lahars, tsunami and PDCs and potentially tephra fall caused these large losses of life; indirect and seismicity-related fatal causes are excluded. Fatal incidents are recorded across a range of distances for all fatal causes, and these ranges are variable between hazards Fig.
Despite a range of distances recorded up to km, the median incident distance for all eruptive hazards is 8. Box and whisker plot showing the range of distances recorded for fatal incidents by fatal cause.
The graph combines QL1 and QL2max data. Each box marks the 25th to 75th percentile distances, with the black line marking the 50th percentile. Whiskers extend to the minimum and maximum distances recorded. All hazards includes all eruptive hazards, including where multiple or unknown, and excludes non-eruptive, seismic and indirect. The count n is the number of incidents with distance data. These have the most proximal average distances Table 4 , with just one ballistics incident recorded beyond 5 km Fig.
Typically, each ballistics incident involved a small number of fatalities Fig. More recently, 57 people lost their lives through ballistics at the summit of Ontake, Japan in Percentage of incidents a and fatalities b per fatal cause in 5 km bins to 50 km. Data include QL 1 and QL 2max categories. Q-gas is quiescent gas, SRY lahars is secondary lahars. The cumulative percentage of fatal incidents by selected eruptive hazard with distance.
Data include QL 1 and QL2max categories. Incidents are counted in 1 km bins. Gas and quiescent gas emissions are typically a proximal hazard Table 4 , Figs. Distances from these satellite vents are provided in the database where known.
Gas and quiescent gas are responsible for both individual casualties and incidents in which many died. Barberi et al. The greatest extent recorded in our dataset is 80 km during the Krakatau eruption, when PDCs travelled across the sea to southern Sumatra and West Java Carey et al. Although too old for inclusion in this database, earlier examples of human impacts at distances beyond this are known.
Maeno and Taniguchi described human settlements in southern Kyushu as devastated by PDCs, which had reached at least km during the 7. Within 10 km of the vent, PDCs contribute the largest proportion of fatalities Fig. It is also likely that many of the fatalities in the Multiple category were due to PDCs, including a majority of the 12, direct fatalities at Tambora, Indonesia in The greatest distance recorded was during the eruption of Kilauea, Hawaii, when lavas emitted from a 10 km-long section of the rift rapidly inundated a village Stearns, 29 km from the summit.
Komorowski et al. These explosions typically VEI 1 have localised effects around the explosion vent but can be located in geothermal areas away from the summit. The greatest number of fatalities in any one incident is recorded at Dieng Volcanic Complex, Indonesia, in , when steam explosions caused ten deaths. Fatalities in explosive hydrothermal incidents will occur through the ejection of boiling water, mud, steam and ballistics, but are considered separately to other eruptive ballistics.
Tephra, lahars and tsunami become the dominant fatal causes for incidents and fatalities after about 15 km Fig. Tephra fall is commonly the most widespread volcanic hazard Jenkins et al. Occasionally, tephra can cause fatalities at great distances, typically through exacerbation of existing heart or lung conditions Horwell and Baxter, , as in a fatality recorded at km during the eruption of Novarupta, U.
Hildreth and Fierstein, The distance at which this burial occurred is unknown; however, Church et al. The majority of fatal incidents at distances greater than 15 km are due to lahars primary and secondary. Distance measurement from the summit can be misleading, as lahars can be generated away from the summit and bulk up and entrain water and debris along the flow, making the source dispersed along the flow.
The greatest recorded QL1 distance occurred in the eruption of Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, when lahars inundated the town of Armero 46 km from the volcano. Tsunami can also have widespread impacts. However, the identification of the location and numbers of tsunami-related fatalities is problematic.
The incidents for which distance is identified occur from close to the volcano to distances beyond km. The greatest recorded number of fatalities through volcanogenic tsunami was 36, in the eruption of Krakatau, Indonesia, at distances of up to 40 km. This dominance of smaller events reflects at least three main factors related to: the short time period of recording; systematic changes in recording of both eruptions and fatal incidents back in time that depend on eruption magnitude; and rapid population growth.
Issues of incompleteness and under-recording are discussed further below. Unravelling these complexities will be challenging and will require a major modelling study which is well beyond the scope of this study. Here we analyse the data without any corrections and so our approach is empirical. The tendency for fatal incident distances to increase with eruption explosivity is illustrated in Fig. Incidents in eruptions of VEI 4 show a less convincing increase in distance.
VEI and distance of fatal incidents across all fatal causes; non-eruptive, indirect and seismicity excluded. Data include QL 1 and QL2 max categories. Incidents individually accounting for over fatalities are recorded in all VEI bands from 1 to 7: an increasing proportion of such incidents in each band is seen with increasing VEI. These incidents are recorded up to tens of kilometres from the volcano.
There is no convincing relationship between VEI, the number of fatalities per incident and distance or fatal cause Fig. The relationship between eruption size VEI , the fatal cause, number of fatalities bubble size and fatal incident distance.
Data include QL 1 and 2max categories. During Hurricane Mitch a debris avalanche transformed into a lahar which killed over in the towns of El Porvenir and Rolando Rodriguez Scott et al.
Quiescent gas emission was responsible for large numbers of fatalities in two events. Both events involved non-eruptive lake-overturn for Lake Monoun see Sigurdsson et al. Fatalities occurred at about 1 km from Lake Monoun. Baxter et al. The remaining quiescent gas emission incidents resulted in 96 fatalities.
Many of these incidents involved small groups of recreational visitors close to craters and bathers in geothermal pools Table 5 , see section 3. Single fatalities occurred in 27 incidents through falls or misadventure. These incidents include a fall into the acidic crater lake at Kelimutu, Indonesia, a fall into a thermal mudpot at Mutnovsky, Russia, one incident at Rotorua, New Zealand and 23 incidents at Yellowstone, U.
Falls during eruptions, for example during tephra clean-up are considered separately. Ten fatal incidents through seismicity are recorded. In most incidents there is ambiguity as to whether these were volcanic or tectonic events. Earthquakes have generated tsunamis resulting in fatalities in both eruptive and non-eruptive events.
At least two instances of fatalities associated with non-eruptive avalanches e. An avalanche occurred at Mombacho, Nicaragua, during a storm in resulting in fatalities. One hundred fatalities are recorded at Parker, Philippines, in after the caldera wall was breached draining the lake.
Information about the occupation, activities or place of residence of the fatalities can highlight vulnerabilities. Most fatal incident descriptions do not include such information about the victims. However, for those that do, several groups of victim occupation or activity stand out Table 6 : tourists, scientists typically volcanologists , journalists, emergency responders and miners working in or near craters.
Although rarely explicitly stated, the vast majority of fatalities are assumed to be local residents. We describe our findings in more detail for tourists, scientists, media and emergency response personnel in the following sections.
One hundred and thirteen incidents with fatalities are associated with tourism or recreation, including tourists, spectators, tourism-related park employees, climbers, campers, students, religious pilgrims and other recreational visitors to volcanoes.
These are hereafter grouped as tourists. Fatal incidents occurred in both times of eruption and quiescence. In times of eruption fatalities are recorded in 69 fatal incidents.
All of the victims were outside at the time of eruption. Persistent volcanic activity can result in hazard footprints that rarely extend beyond the crater. Such regular activity can engender complacency in tourists and guides, although small changes in activity, topography or wind direction can change the hazard footprint. At least 22 eruptive and 5 indirect fatal incidents occurred more than 1 year after the eruption start date, commonly at volcanoes known for regular activity.
Eighty-one fatalities occurred in 44 fatal incidents in periods of quiescence of which only 10 incidents involved more than one death. Non-eruptive fatal causes are gas 56 fatalities, 19 incidents and indirect 25 fatalities, 25 incidents. These latter data are, however, strongly biased by data from Yellowstone, USA, which includes 23 incidents involving singular fatalities. In times of quiescence hazards can be less obvious, with gas in particular representing a potentially invisible hazard.
A good example is the six tourists who died in five incidents through quiescent degassing at Asosan, Japan, between and Table 5. Gas monitoring devices and warnings were introduced in Tourist co-operation is a requirement for safety in any volcanic setting, with visitors being relied upon to heed warnings and exercise appropriate caution.
The 23 fatalities at Yellowstone occurred between Whittlesey, and Mettler, , where deaths resulted from immersion in the near boiling water of thermal pools. Whittlesey describes these as accidental falls and misadventure — where the victims believed the pools swimmable. Educational and safety information is provided and safe boardwalks through thermal areas have been installed, yet injuries are still frequent as visitors choose to engage in risky behaviour Lalasz, Despite the frequency of injuries, only two fatalities are recorded in the last 30 years at Yellowstone, suggesting safety measures have been largely successful and the visitor population has become more risk averse at this volcano.
Seventeen deaths are recorded at Rotorua, New Zealand since , of which at least seven were tourists. These fatalities occurred primarily at hot pools through quiescent gas emissions. The decrease in incidents over time seen at Yellowstone is not seen here, with seven incidents since Recommendations were made in aimed at improving safety at geothermal pools Bassindale and Hosking, Twenty-two incidents are identified in which 67 volcanologists, other field scientists and those supporting their work died Table 7.
Fish and Wildlife Service volunteer. The latter two events are classed as indirect having resulted from falls into thermal features.
The ship and her crew had been dispatched with seven scientists to observe the submarine eruption of Bayonnaise Rocks, Japan, which struck and sank the ship Minakami, All known scientist fatalities occurred within 11 km of volcanoes.
As with tourists, the most commonly identified fatal cause for scientists is ballistics 7 incidents, 15 fatalities. Four PDCs resulted in nine fatalities, despite this being the dominant fatal cause for all volcanic fatalities Table 4 ; Auker et al. A radio operator reporting on the activity of St.
Although not classified as emergency responders, fatality records exist for individuals who perished during rescue and recovery efforts. At Rabaul, Papua New Guinea, in , three were killed whilst attempting to recover the bodies of three friends and relatives who were overcome by volcanic gases in a vent GVP, Rescue efforts saw the further death of one colleague and hospitalisation of seven others Cantrell and Young, Helens USA.
Victims at Unzendake, Sinabung, Pacaya and Semeru were within the declared danger zones. Catalogue completeness is a key issue for volcanic databases. Under-recording increases further back in time and varies considerably between regions and with eruption size e. Jenkins et al. Our data Fig. This observation indicates the increasing availability of more detailed eruption impact records with time as well as improving recording of eruptions.
The largest increases in percentage with distance data are seen from the 16th to 17th centuries and 19th to 20th centuries. This pattern is similar to that observed in eruption records where recording undergoes significant improvements at about and AD, attributed to colonisation, increased written record keeping and technological improvements in communication e. Furlan, , Rougier et al. The percentage of all fatal incidents per century for which we have identified the fatal distances.
Note that the data for the twenty-first century only represent up to Both QL 1 and QL 2max data are represented. We use data since to investigate whether there has been a reduction in the number of incidents and therefore an improvement in saving lives over time. In the early part of the twentieth Century the rate of recording of fatal incidents is reasonably steady Fig. Historians regard it as the volcano eruption with the deadliest known direct impact: roughly , people died in the immediate aftermath.
And so you had widespread crop failure and starvation all from Asia to the United States to Europe. Volcanoes near the equator can cause global weather changes if their eruptions are powerful enough to release gases into the stratosphere. This gas gets trapped since it is too high to be washed away by rain, then travels along the equator and spreads out toward the poles. This decreases the amount of heat that passes through the stratosphere from the sun.
A view from the craters edge of Mount Tambora on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia. Deaths do not just occur from the products of an eruption but can also occur because of loss of food. Volcanic eruptions can also be destructive for economies. While measuring the economic cost of ancient eruptions is largely theoretical, the costs of more recent eruptions are calculated by measuring the loss of infrastructure and the loss of income to people in the area.
Here are 10 of the most devastating volcanic eruptions in human history:. Tambora is the deadliest eruption in recent human history, claiming the lives of up to , people.
On 10 April , Tambora erupted sending volcanic ash 40km into the sky. It was the most powerful eruption in years. Upon entering the ocean, the force of the pyroclastic flow caused the creation of a series of towering tsunamis.
Thanks to the enormous amount of SO 2 emitted, the world experienced a severe temperature drop that led to global crop failures. Thousands starved to death in China while typhus spread across Europe. In the two years after the explosion, the price of grain in Switzerland more than quadrupled. The eruption of the Indonesian volcano, Krakatoa, was one of the most violent eruptions in recent human history — completely destroying the island on which it resides.
Its airwaves travelled seven times around the globe. It produced a series of tsunamis that devastated the region, killing around 36, people and destroying whole villages. An lithograph of the eruption of Krakatoa. The devastation of the Laki eruption was felt globally for years after the event.
The Laki eruption lasted for 8 months, emitting about The volcano released enough SO 2 to cause acid rain and global temperatures to drop.
Some environmental historians believe the European famine caused by the eruption may have been a catalyst for the French Revolution. The central fissure of Laki volcano, Iceland.
Until Mt Pelee produced the worst eruption of the 20 th century, the volcano was thought to be dormant. Of the 28, people living in St. Pierre, only two survived.
Ash cloud above Mt Pelee on 30 August The first known eruption of Ilopango in AD is the second-largest volcanic eruption in the last , years.
This eruption was so large that it is thought to have destroyed several Mayan cities. The skies were filled with ash and dust for more than a year.
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