For example, black carbon, a particulate pollutant from combustion, contributes to the warming of the Earth, while particulate sulfates cool the earth's atmosphere. The scientific knowledge and tools developed by EPA are enhancing the ability of state and local air quality managers to consider climate change in their decisions to protect air quality and to reduce the impacts of a changing climate. Skip to main content. The primary methodology is numerical modelling, and a special focus of the group is long-range transport of ground-level ozone.
ClimAct examines the potentials and limits of an integrated approach to air quality and climate in the context of the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals, in particular via its participation in and study of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition CCAC , a voluntary transnational partnership that aims to reduce near-term global warming and improve air quality through action on short-lived climate-forcing pollutants.
ClimPol conducts research in support of transformations towards more integrated policymaking on climate change and air quality.
It focuses on a range of issues relating to air quality in urban areas and explores the connections between air pollution, climate change, and mobility. The research team also fosters greater awareness of these issues by establishing dialogues among policymakers, civil society actors, and the scientific community. SusKat aims to reduce air pollution levels in Nepal by improving scientific understanding, identifying effective measures, and raising awareness of the problem and its solutions among policymakers and the general public.
Now in its third phase, the project is currently focused on capacity building and stakeholder engagement to support the implementation of the most promising mitigation measures.
Jump to main content Jump to search. Back to top. A number of bodies under the Convention monitor and investigate the effects of key air pollutants on different parts of ecosystems. Overall, this work will help countries in achieving a number of targets under various Sustainable Development Goals, such as those on life on land SDG 15 , life below water SDG 14 , and responsible consumption and production SDG More concretely, the International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of the Effects of Air Pollution on Rivers and Lakes assesses the degree and geographical extent of acidification of surface waters.
The objective of the International Cooperative Programme on Integrated Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Ecosystems is to monitor the state of ecosystems, their changes and effects of air pollutants and climate change from a long-term perspective, and to develop and validate models for the simulation of ecosystem responses. The International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests provides a periodic overview on the condition of forest ecosystems in terms of health, productivity, diversity and nutrition.
Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination.
This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter PM.
Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:. Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels. People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness.
These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health. Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma. As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified 57 due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors.
New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.
Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.
These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths. The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants.
These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors. Particulate Matter PMs , dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state.
When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality.
Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions , while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide NO 2 , Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.
Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases Alzheimer's and Parkinson's is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor.
Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons Figure 1. Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation IL-6 and fibrinogen were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution.
Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs , Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.
However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery e.
Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles CA, USA particulate matter In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation , is related to poor air quality.
Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins IgA, IgM and the complement component C3 are observed Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation UVR and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung.
On the other hand, air pollutants and those in the troposphere reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis , usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles.
Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye.
Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation , retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome , Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment in which we live.
The most important environmental effects are as follows. Acid rain is wet rain, fog, snow or dry particulates and gas precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues. Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere.
It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks. Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level stratosphere of the Earth's atmosphere.
Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet UV rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances i.
If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life skin cancer and crops In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind.
Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment.
A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants.
Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported. Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients especially nitrogen stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths. Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity.
Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported.
Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.
Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems air, water, and soil and living creatures Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development.
Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects. Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school. Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation.
Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully. Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants.
This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, , and then the Durban summit of , where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries.
As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP Gross Domestic Product is expected to be very high by , which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions. This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN United Nations countries as well as the countries of the European Union In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject.
Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.
Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively. At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control.
Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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